• Photoelectrochemical systems unify semiconductor electrodes, sensitized interfaces, and storage-capable architectures to convert solar energy into chemical or electrical energy, as seen in polycrystalline chalcogenide electrodes, sensitized junctions, and water-splitting cells [8], [10], [14], [15], [19].

• Materials engineering and surface/interfacial modification drive higher efficiency and durability of solar energy devices, with InP/GaAs photocathodes, GaAs surface treatments, and CdSe/CdS junctions showing up to double-digit efficiencies in varied electrolytes [4], [6], [16], [17], [18], [19].

• Solar-fuels research references water splitting as a central objective, tying hydrogen production and catalyst design to energy-conversion devices, with MoS2 layer studies and biomimetic approaches informing energetics and kinetics [5], [13], [14], [19], [20].

• Thermodynamic accounting and system-level modelling frame energy-conversion research, quantifying efficiencies and guiding sustainable design across solar-thermal and electrochemical routes, including energy-efficiency analyses, electrochemical energy considerations, and solar-energy strategy [7], [9], [11], [12].